Skip to main content

Assessing the Diverse Factors that Influence the Behaviors and Experiences of Gay Men and Other Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM) Living with HIV in the United States: Implications for Prevention and Improved Health

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

This chapter provides an historical overview of the HIV epidemic and its impact on the health and lives of gay men and other men who have sex with men (MSM) in the USA. It explores the wide range of factors that influence the behaviors and experiences of MSM living with HIV infection in the USA at the individual, interpersonal, organizational, community, and broader societal level with implications and recommendations for prevention and improved health. An emphasis is placed on sexual risk and protective behaviors; psychosocial issues; access to antiretroviral therapies and adherence; behavioral, biomedical, and structural interventions; identifying, linking, and retaining MSM in care; and policy and structural approaches to HIV prevention, care, and treatment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

References

  • Aidala, A., Cross, J., Stall, R., Harre, D., & Sumartojo, E. (2005). Housing status and HIV risk behaviors: Implications for prevention and policy. AIDS and Behavior, 9, 251–265.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • AIDS.gov. (2012). The affordable Care Act helps people living with HIV/AIDS. Retrieved from http://aids.gov/pdf/how-does-the-aca-help-plwh.pdf.

  • Audelin, A. M., Cowan, S. A., Obel, N., Nielsen, C., Jørgensen, L. B., & Gerstoft, J. (2013). Phylogenetic of the Danish HIV epidemic: The role of very late presenters in sustaining the epidemic. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 62, 102–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Avert. (2017). History of HIV & AIDS: United States of America. Retrieved from http://www.avert.org/history-hiv-and-aids.htm.

  • Black AIDS Institute. (2010). The Black AIDS Institute applauds Congress’ passage of Historic health care reform bill. Retrieved from http://www.thebody.com/content/art56015.html.

  • Blackard, J., Cohen, D., & Mayer, K. (2002). Human immunodeficiency virus superinfection and recombination: Current state of knowledge and potential clinical consequences. Clinical Infectious Disease, 34, 1108–1114.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bradford, J., Coleman, S., & Cunningham, W. (2007). HIV system navigation: An emerging model to improve access to care. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 21, S49–S58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cassels, S., Menza, T., Goodreau, S., & Golden, M. (2009). HIV serosorting as a harm reduction strategy: Evidence from Seattle, Washington. AIDS, 23, 2497–2506.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Center for AIDS Prevention Studies (CAPS). (2006). How does stigma affect HIV prevention and treatment? Retrieved from http://caps.ucsf.edu/uploads/pubs/FS/pdf/stigmaFS.pdf.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2003). Internet use and early syphilis infection among men who have sex with men—San Francisco, California, 1999–2003. Mortality and Morbidity Report, 52, 1229–1232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004). High-risk sexual behavior by HIV-positive men who have sex with men—16 sites, United States, 2000–2002. Mortality and Morbidity Report, 53, 891–894. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5338a1.htm.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). HIV prevention in the United States. At a critical crossroads. Atlanta, GA: National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention; Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/reports/pdf/hiv_prev_us.pdf.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011a). New multi-year data show annual HIV infections in U.S. relatively stable. Alarming increase among young, black gay and bisexual men requires urgent action. Atlanta, GA: National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention; Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/HIVIncidencePressRelease.html.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011b). HIV risk, prevention, and testing behaviors among men who have sex with men—National HIV Behavioral Surveillance System, 21 U.S. cities, United States, 2008. Mortality and Morbidity Report, 60, 1–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011c). Stigma and Discrimination. Atlanta, GA: National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention; Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/stigma-and-discrimination.htm.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011d). Vital signs: HIV prevention through care and treatment-United States. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 60, 1618–1624.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011e). High-impact HIV prevention. CDC’s approach to reducing HIV infections in the United States. Atlanta, GA: National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention; Division of HIV/AIDS. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/strategy/dhap/pdf/nhas_booklet.pdf.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012a). HIV among gay and bisexual men. Atlanta, GA: National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention; Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/msm/pdf/msm.pdf.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012b). HIV in the United States: The stages of care. Atlanta, GA: National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention; Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Today’s HIV/AIDS Epidemic. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/docs/HIVFactSheets/TodaysEpidemic-508.pdf.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015). HIV in the United States: At a glance. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/statistics_basics_ataglance_factsheet.pdf.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). HIV among gay and bisexual men. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/group/msm/cdc-hiv-msm.pdf.

  • Charlebois, E. D., Das, M., Porco, T. C., & Havlir, D. (2011). The effect of expanded antiretroviral treatment strategies on the HIV epidemic among men who have sex with men in San Francisco. Clinical Infectious Disease, 52, 1046–1049.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, M. S., Chen, Y. Q., McCauley, M., Gamble, T., Hosseinipour, M. C., Kumarasamy, N., … HPTN 051 Study Team. (2011). Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. The New England Journal of Medicine, 365, 493–505.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craw, J. A., Gardner, L. I., Marks, G., Rapp, R. C., Bosshart, J., Duffus, W.A., … Schmitt, K. (2008). Brief strengths-based case management promotes entry into HIV medical care: Results of the antiretroviral treatment access study-II. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 45, 600–601.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craw, J., Gardner, L., Rossman, A., Gruber, D., Noreen, O., Jordan, D., … Phillips, K. (2010). Structural factors and best practices in implementing a linkage to HIV care program using the ARTAS model. BMC Health Services Research, 10, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crepaz, N., Hart, T., & Marks, G. (2004). Highly active antiretroviral therapy and sexual risk behavior. Journal of American Medical Association, 14, 224–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crepaz, N., Lyles, C. M., Wolitski, R. J., Passin, W. F., Rama, S. M., Herbst, J. H., … HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Synthesis (PRS) Team. (2006). Do prevention interventions reduce HIV risk behaviours among people living with HIV? A meta-analytic review of controlled trials. AIDS, 20, 143–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crepaz, N., Marks, G., Liau, A., Mullins, M. M., Aupont, L. W., Marshall, K. J., … HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Synthesis (PRS) Team. (2009). Prevalence of unprotected anal intercourse among HIV-diagnosed MSM in the United States: a meta-analysis. AIDS, 23, 1617–1629.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crowley, J., & Kates, J. (2012). The Kaiser Family Foundation. The Affordable Care Act, The Supreme Court, and HIV: What are the implications? Retrieved from http://kff.org/health-reform/issue-brief/the-affordable-care-act-the-supreme-court/.

  • Das, M., Chu, P., Santos, G. M., Scheer, S., Vittinghoff, E., McFarland, W., & Colfax, G. N. (2010). Decreases in community viral load are accompanied by reductions in new HIV infections in San Francisco. PLoS One, 5, 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diaz, R. (2003). HIV stigmatization and mental health outcomes in Latino gay men. Paper presented at the Biennial meeting of the Society for Community Research and Action, Las Vegas, NM.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eaton, L. A., Driffin, D. D., Kegler, C., Smith, H., Conway-Washington, C., White, D., & Cherry, C. (2015). The role of stigma and medical mistrust in the routing health care engagement of Black men who have sex with men. American Journal of Public Health, 105, e65–e82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton, J. W., Johnson, L. F., Salomon, J. A., Bärnighausen, T., Bendavid, E., Bershteyn, A., … Hallett, T. B. (2012). HIV treatment as prevention: Systematic comparison of mathematical models of the potential impact of antiretroviral therapy on HIV incidence in South Africa. PLoS Medicine, 9, 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton, L. A., Kalichman, S. C., Kalichman, M. O., Driffin, D. D., Baldwin, R., Zohren, L., & Conway-Washington, C. (2017). Randomised controlled trial of a sexual risk reduction intervention for STI prevention among men who have sex with men in the USA. Sexually Transmitted Infections. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2016-052835.

  • Eaton, L., West, T., Kenny, D., & Kalichman, S. (2009). HIV transmission risk among HIV seroconcordant and serodiscordant couples: Dyadic processes of partner selection. AIDS Behavior, 13, 185–195.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenton, K. (2011). Addressing the HIV epidemic among gay and bisexual men. Retrieved from http://blog.aids.gov/2011/09/addressing-the-hiv-epidemic-among-gay-and-bisexual-men.html.

  • Fleishman, J., & Gebo, K. (2012, March). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2012, as presented to the Institute of Medicine Committee to Review Data Systems for Monitoring HIV Care, referenced in Institute of Medicine, monitoring HIV care in the United States: Indicators and data systems. Retrieved from http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2012/Monitoring-HIV-Care-in-the-United-states.aspx.

  • Fortenberry, J., McFarlane, M., & Bleakley, A. (2002). Relationships of stigma and shame to gonorrhea and HIV screening. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 378–381.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Freimuth, V. S., Quinn, S. C., Thomas, S. B., Cole, G., Zook, E., & Duncan, T. (2001). African Americans’ views on research and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Social Science and Medicine, 52, 797–808.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, M. R., Coulter, R. W., Silvestre, A. J., Stall, R., Teplin, L., Shoptaw, S., … Plankey, M. W. (2017). Someone to count on: Social support as an effect modifier of viral load suppression in a prospective cohort study. AIDS Care, 29, 469–480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, E. M., McLees, M. P., Steiner, J. F., Del Rio, C., & Burman, W. J. (2011). The spectrum of engagement in HIV care and its relevance to test-and-treat strategies for prevention of HIV infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 52, 793–800.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, L. I., Metsch, L. R., Anderson-Mahoney, P., Loughlin, A. M., del Rio, C., Strathdee, S., … Antiretroviral Therapy and Access Study Group. (2005). Efficacy of a brief case management intervention to link recently diagnosed HIV-infected persons to care. AIDS, 19, 423-431.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grey, J. A., Rothenberg, R., Sullivan, P. S., & Rosenberg, E. S. (2015). Racial differences in the accuracy of perceived partner HIV status among men who have sex with men (MSM) in Atlanta, Georgia. Journal of the International Association of Providers in AIDS Care, 14, 26–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halkitis, P. N., Green, K. A., Remien, R. H., Stirratt, M. J., Hoff, C. C., Wolitski, R. J., & Parsons, J. T. (2005). Seroconcordant sexual partnering of HIV-seropositive men who have sex with men. AIDS, 19, S77–S86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halkitis, P., Parsons, J. T., Wolitski, R., & Remien, R. (2003). Characteristics of HIV antiretroviral treatments, access and adherence in an ethnically diverse sample of men who have sex with men. AIDS Care, 15, 89–102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halkitis, P. N., Wilton, L., Wolitski, R. J., Parsons, J. T., Hoff, C. C., & Bimbi, D. S. (2005). Barebacking identity among HIV-positive gay and bisexual men: Demographic, psychological, and behavioral correlates. AIDS, 19, S27–S35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, V. (1999). The relationship between social support and health in gay men with HIV/AIDS: An integrative review. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 10, 74–86.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herbst, J. H., Mansergh, G., Pitts, N., Denson, D., Mimiaga, M. J., & Holman J. (2017). Effects of brief messages about antiretroviral therapy and condom use benefits among Black and Latino MSM in three US cities. Journal of Homosexuality. doi:10.1080/00918369.2017.

  • Herek, G. (1999). AIDS and stigma. American Behavioral Scientist, 42, 1106–1116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herrick, A. L., Lim, S. H., Wei, C., Smith, H., Guadamuz, T., Friedman, M. S., & Stall, R. (2011). Resilience as an untapped resource in behavioral intervention design for gay men. AIDS Behavior, 15, S25–S29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrick, A. L., Stall, R., Goldhammer, H., Egan, J. E., & Mayer, K. H. (2013). Resilience as a research framework and as a cornerstone of prevention research for gay and bisexual men: Theory and evidence. AIDS Behavior. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10461-012-0384-x/fulltext.html.

  • Hidalgo, J., Coombs, E., Cobbs, W. O., Green-Jones, M., Phillips, G., II, Wohl, A. R., & Young MSM of Color SPNS Initiative Study Group. (2011). Roles and challenges of outreach workers in HIV clinical and support programs serving young racial/ethnic minority men who have sex with men. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 25, S15–S22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • HIV Prevention Trials Network (HPTN). (2012). HPTN Study 052. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) prevents the sexual transmission of HIV in serodiscordant couples. Retrieved from http://www.hptn.org/web%20documents/IndexDocs/HPTN052FactSheet19Jul2011.pdf.

  • HIV Prevention Trials Network (HPTN). (2013). About the HPTN. Retrieved from http://www.hptn.org/AboutHPTN.htm.

  • Hoff, C. C., Gomez, C., Faigeles, B., Purcell, D., Halkitis, P. N., Parsons, J. T., & Remien, R. H. (2004). Serostatus of primary partner impacts sexual behavior inside and outside the relationship: A description of HIV-positive MSM in primary relationships. Journal of Psychology, 16, 77–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Institute of Medicine. (2002). Unequal treatment. What healthcare consumers need to know about racial and ethnic disparities in healthcare. Retrieved from http://publichealthva.org/sites/default/files/What%20healthcare%20consumers%20need%20to%20know%20about%20racial%20and%20ethnic%20disparities%20in%20healthcare.pdf.

  • Jacobson, L. P., Gore, M. E., Strathdee, S. A., Phair, J. P., Riddler, S., Detels, R., & Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. (2001). Therapy naivete in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 54, 149–156.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, W. D., Diaz, R. M., Flanders, W. D., Goodman, M., Hill, A. N., Holtgrave, D., … McClellan, W. M. (2008). Behavioral interventions to reduce risk for sexual transmission of HIV among men who have sex with men. Cochran Database Systematic Review. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001230.pub2.

  • Kaiser Family Foundation. (2011). HIV/AIDS at 30. A public opinion perspective. Retrieved from http://www.kff.org/kaiserpolls/upload/8186.pdf.

  • Kaiser Family Foundation. (2012). How the ACA changes pathways to insurance coverage for people with HIV. Retrieved from http://kff.org/health-reform/perspective/how-the-aca-changes-pathways-to-insurance-coverage-for-people-with-hiv/.

  • Kalichman, S., Rompa, D., & Cage, M. (2000). Sexually transmitted infections among HIV seropositive men and women. Sexual Transmitted Infections, 76, 350–354.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kass, N., Flynn, C., Jacobson, L., Chmiel, J. S., & Bing, E. G. (1999). Effect of race on insurance coverage and health service use for HIV-infected gay men. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retroviruses, 20, 85–92.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khosropour, C. M., Dombrowski, J. C., Kerani, R. P., Katz, D. A., Barbee, L. A., & Golden, M. R. (2016). Changes in condomless sex and serosorting among men who have sex with men after HIV diagnosis. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 73, 475–481.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kidder, D., Wolitski, R., & Royal, S. (2007). Access to housing as a structural intervention for homeless and unstably housed people living with HIV: Rational, methods, and implementation of the housing and health study. AIDS Behavior, 11, 149–161.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinsler, J. J., Wong, M. D., Sayles, J. N., Davis, C., & Cunningham, W. E. (2007). The effect of perceived stigma from a health care provider on access to care among low-income HIV-positive population. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 21, 584–592.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirberger, P. C. (2013). HIV travel ban background. Retrieved from http://immigration-lawyer.com/hiv-travel-ban-faq/.

  • Kleeberger, C. A., Buechner, J., Palella, F., Detels, R., Riddler, S., Godfrey, R., & Jacobson, L. P. (2004). Changes in adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy medications in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. AIDS, 18, 683–688.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleeberger, C. A., Phair, J. P., Strathdee, S. A., Detels, R., Kingsley, L., & Jacobson, L. P. (2001). Determinants of heterogeneous adherence to HIV-antiretroviral therapies in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 26, 82–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laffoon, B. T., Hall, H. I., Surendera Babu, A., Benbow, N., Hsu, L. C., & Hu, Y. W. (2015). HIV infection and linkage to HIV-related medical care in large urban areas in the United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 69(4), 487–492.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamda Legal. (2010). HIV criminalization: State laws criminalizing conduct based on HIV status. Retrieved from http://www.lambdalegal.org/sites/default/files/publications/downloads/fs_hiv-criminalization_1.pdf.

  • Le Talec, J., & Jablonski, O. (2008). Seroadaptation instead of serosorting: A broader concept and more precise process model. XVII International AIDS Conference, Mexico City, Abstract WEPE 0311.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy, M. E., Phillips, G., II, Magnus, M., Kuo, I., Beauchamp, G., Emel, L., … Mayer, K. (2017). Treatment optimism is associated with HIV acquisition and transmission risk behaviors: A longitudinal analysis of Black men who have sex with men in HPTN 061. AIDS and Behavior. doi:10.1007/s10461-017-1756-z.

  • Lewnard, J. A., & Berrang-Ford, L. (2014). Internet-based partner selection and risk for unprotected anal intercourse in sexual encounters among men who have sex with men: A meta-analysis of observational studies. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 90, 290–296.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, K. H., Bekker, L. G., Stall, R., Grulich, A. E., Colfax, G., & Lama, R. (2012). Comprehensive clinical care for men who have sex with men: An integrated approach. Lancet, 28, 378–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McFarland, W., Chen, Y. H., Nguyen, B., Grasso, M., Levine, D., Stall, R., … Raymond, H. F. (2012). Behavior, intention or chance? A longitudinal study of HIV seroadaptive behaviors, abstinence and condom use. AIDS Behavior, 16, 121–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Millett, G., Peterson, J., Wolitski, R., & Stall, R. (2006). Greater risk for HIV infection of Black men who have sex with men: A critical literature review. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 1007–1017.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mimiaga, M. J., O’Cleirigh, C., Biello, K. B., Robertson, A. M., Safren, S. A., Coates, T. J. … Mayer, K. H. (2015). The effect of psychosocial syndemic production on 4-year HIV incidence and risk behavior in a large cohort of sexually active men who have sex with men. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 68, 329–336.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mitzel, L. D., Vanable, P. A., Brown, J. L., Bostwick, R. A., Sweeney, S. M., & Carey, M. P. (2015). Depressive symptoms mediate the effect of HIV-related stigmatization on medication adherence among HIV-infected men who have sex with men. AIDS and Behavior, 19(8), 1454–1459.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Montaner, J. S., Lima, V. D., Barrios, R., Yip, B., & Wood, E. (2010). Association of highly active retroviral therapy coverage, population viral load, and yearly new HIV diagnoses in British Columbia, Canada: A population-based study. The Lancet, 376, 532–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, A., & Ziglio, E. (2007). Revitalising the evidence base for public health: An assets model. Promotion and Education, 14, 17–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muessig, K. E., Smith, M. K., Powers, K. A., Lo, Y.-R., Burns, D. N., Grulich, A. E., … Cohen, M. S. (2012). Does ART prevent HIV transmission among MSM? AIDS, 26, 2267-2273.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oh, D. L., Sarafian, F., Silvestre, A., Brown, T., Jacobson, L., Badri, S., & Detels, R. (2009). Evaluation of adherence and factors affecting adherence to combination antiretroviral therapy among White, Hispanic, and Black men in the MACS Cohort. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 52, 290–293.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrow, D. E., Fox, K. J., Chmiel, J. S., Silvestre, A., Visscher, B. R., Vanable, P. A., … Strathdee, S. A. (2002). Attitudes toward highly active antiretroviral therapy are associated with sexual risk taking among HIV-infected and uninfected homosexual men. AIDS, 16, 775–780.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, J. T., Schrimshaw, E. W., Wolitski, R. J., Halkitis, P. N., Purcell, D. W., Hoff, C. C., & Gomez, C. A. (2005). Sexual harm reduction practices of HIV-seropositive gay and bisexual men: Serosorting, strategic positioning, and withdrawal before ejaculation. AIDS, 19, S13–S25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • PBS. (2009). Obama announces end of HIV ban. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/politics/july-dec09/travel_10-30.html.

  • Sayles, J. N., Wong, M. D., Kinsler, J., Martins, D., & Cunningham, W. E. (2009). The association of stigma with self-reported access to medical care and antiretroviral therapy adherence in persons living with HIV/AIDS. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 24, 1101–1108.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, H. M., Vittinghoff, E., Irvin, R., Sachdev, D., Liu, A., Gurwith, M., & Buchbinder, S. P. (2014). Age, race/ethnicity, and behavioral risk factors associated with peer contact risk of HIV infection among men who have sex with men in the United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 65, 115–1121.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sears, B., & Mallory, C. (2011). Documented evidence of employment discrimination and its effects on LGBT people. The Williams Institute. Retrieved from http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Sears-Mallory-Discrimination-July-20111.pdf.

  • Sengupta, S., Banks, B., Jonas, D., Miles, M. S., & Smith, G. C. (2011). HIV interventions to reduce HIV/AIDs stigma: A systematic review. AIDS Behavior, 15, 1075–1087.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shriver, M., Everett, C., & Morin, S. (2000). Structural interventions to encourage primary HIV prevention among people living with HIV. AIDS, 14, S57–S62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siegfried, N., Uthman, O., & Rutherford, G. (2010). Optimal time for initiation of antiretroviral therapy in asymptomatic, HIV-infected, treatment-naive adults (Review). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008272.pub2.

  • Snowden, J., Raymond, H., & McFarland, W. (2009). Prevalence of seroadaptive behaviours of men who have sex with men, San Francisco, 2004. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 85, 469–476.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stall, R., Mills, T. C., Williamson, J., Hart, T., Greenwood, G., Paul, J., … Catania, J. A. (2003). Association of co-occurring psychosocial health problems and increased vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among urban men who have sex with men. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 939–942.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stall, R., Pollack, L., Mills, T. C., Martin, J. N., Osmond, D., Paul, J., … Catania, J. A. (2001). Use of antiretroviral therapies among HIV-infected men who have sex with men: A household-based sample of 4 major American cities. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 767–773.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, P. S., Carballo-Diéguez, A., Coates, T., Goodreau, S. M., McGowan, I., Sanders, E. J., … Sanchez, J. (2012). Successes and challenges of HIV prevention in men who have sex with men. The Lancet, 380, 388–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanser, F., Bärnighausen, T., Grapsa, E., Zaidi, J., & Newell, M. L. (2013). High coverage of ART associated with decline in risk of HIV acquisition in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Science, 339, 966–971.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • The Body. (2003). HIV/AIDS stigma. Retrieved from http://www.thebody.com/content/art12405.html?ts=pf.

  • The National AIDS Housing Coalition. (2005). Housing is the foundation of HIV prevention and treatment. Retrieved from http://www.nationalaidshousing.org/PDF/Housing%20&%20HIVAIDS%20Policy%20Paper%2005.pdf.

  • The Press-Enterprise. (2013). Gay rights: Employment discrimination still legal and common. Retrieved from http://blog.pe.com/multicultural-beat/2013/04/25/gay-rights-employment-discrimination-still-legal-and-common/.

  • The White House. (2010). The national HIV/AIDS strategy. Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/onap/nhas/.

  • Tinsley, M., & Xavier, J. (2011). Outreach, care and prevention to engage HIV seropositive young men of color who have sex with men: A special project of national significance program initiative. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 25, S1–S2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Truong, H. M., Kellogg, T., Klausner, J. D., Katz, M. H., Dilley, J., Knapper, K., … McFarland, W. (2006). Increases in sexually transmitted infections and sexual risk behavior without a concurrent increase in HIV incidence among men who have sex with men in San Francisco: A suggestion of HIV serosorting? Sexually Transmitted Infections, 82, 461–466.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Valdiserri, R. (2012). HIV/AIDS treatment cascade helps identify gaps in care, retention. Retrieved from http://blog.aids.gov/2012/07/hivaids-treatment-cascade-helps-identify-gaps-in-care-retention.html.

  • Van Kesteran, N., Hospers, H., & Kok, G. (2007). Sexual risk behavior among HIV-positive men who have sex with men: A literature review. Patient Education and Counseling, 65, 5–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vicini, J., & Stempel, J. (2012). WRAPUP 4-US top court upholds healthcare law in Obama triumph. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/28/usa-healthcare-court-idUSL2E8HS4WG20120628.

  • Wilton, L., Koblin, B., Nandi, V., Xu, G., Latkin, C., Seal, D., … Spikes, P. (2015). Correlates of seroadaptation strategies among Black men who have sex with men (MSM) in 4 US cities. AIDS and Behavior, 19, 2333–2346.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wohl, A. R., Galvan, F. H., Carlos, J. A., Myers, H. F., Garland, W., Witt, M. D., … George, S. (2013). A comparison of MSM stigma, HIV stigma and depression in HIV-positive Latino and African American men who have sex with men (MSM). AIDS and Behavior, 17, 1454–1464.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zierler, S., Cunningham, W., Andersen, R., Shapiro, M. F., Nakazono, T., Morton, S., … Bozzette, S. A. (2000). Violence victimization after HIV infection in a US probability sample of adult patients in primary care. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 208–215.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Russell A. Brewer .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer Science+Business Media LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Brewer, R.A., Mayer, K.H. (2017). Assessing the Diverse Factors that Influence the Behaviors and Experiences of Gay Men and Other Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM) Living with HIV in the United States: Implications for Prevention and Improved Health. In: Wilton, L. (eds) Understanding Prevention for HIV Positive Gay Men. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0203-0_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0203-0_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4419-0202-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4419-0203-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics