Copyright material – 9781844573172 Contents Acknowledgments vi Introduction: Video Games as a Global Phenomenon 1 An Industrial History of Video Games Case Study: Atari Case Study: Nintendo Case Study: Sega 2 Market Structure, Audiences and Software Production Case Study: Electronic Arts Case Study: Activision-Blizzard 3 Video Game Hardware, Distribution and Retail Case Study: Microsoft Case Study: Sony 4 Video Games and Other Related Industries 5 Labour and Production in the Global Video Game Industry Case Study: Electronic Arts, Rockstar and Labour Case Study: Hollywood Unions, Video Games and Labour Conclusion: Making Sense of the Global Video Game Industry 1 12 19 34 38 43 54 63 80 87 97 111 140 155 159 166 Bibliography Index 175 217 Copyright material – 9781844573172 Introduction: Video Games as a Global Phenomenon Ten years ago, a book attempting to justify video games as a unique cultural industry would have been a tough sell. The common view was that they were just toys – admittedly fancy, costly toys, but toys nonetheless. Today, however, that view has changed. Video games have emerged as a fully developed industry that not only competes with but also often complements a wide variety of other cultural industries. Educators and academics have recognised their potential value as teaching tools since the first prototypes were developed in the 1960s. Similarly, concerns over potential negative effects, whether from too much time spent with video games or from exposure to violent content, have dogged the industry since at least the early 1980s. In 2004, the global video game industry first earned more than Hollywood’s domestic box office, a marker often used to demonstrate its growing importance. Moreover, a number of major media and communication companies began to use video games as integral parts of branding and advertising, including franchises such as Harry Potter, Lord of the Rings, James Bond and the NFL (Bloom, 2001; Bloom and Graser, 2002). Even popstar Britney Spears has a video game. The industry, which has tried to follow the Hollywood film system throughout its history, has even created its own hall of fame and the ‘Walk of Game’ in San Francisco (Harris, 2005). One doesn’t have to look far for examples of how significant and deeply ingrained video games have become in our day-to-day lives. They have been involved in a political scandal, as when a Norwegian representative was caught playing one during a major policy debate (CNN, 2003). Special ‘serious’ video games have been created for a variety of purposes. Serious games, which use the mechanics and capabilities of video games for training, have been used in a variety of areas including a number of political campaigns in the US. In fact, the ability of video games to energise the youth vote has led some experts to predict they’ll soon become a mainstay of most political campaigns (Foster, 2004b).Video games are being used as a part of medical treatment and have been the focus of debates about youth violence (AP, 2005b, 2005c; ESA, 2001; Johnson, 2004; New Zealand Herald, 2003). Industry studies show that video games are less and less toys for kids (ESA, 2002, 2004, 2005a, 2006, 2007). Increasingly, they’re facing the same questions of intellectual property Copyright material – 9781844573172 2 THE VIDEO GAME BUSINESS ownership and piracy as the recorded music and film industries (Chazan, 2005; Veiga, 2004). Moreover, the pedagogical value of video games has become so widely accepted that a school district in Michigan loaned PlayStation 2s to students to help them take advantage of educational software (Laskowski, 2005). Even the US military has shifted its long-standing use of video games into overdrive. The US Marine Corps has begun to use video game first-person shooter Doom (1993) to help teach its recruits tactics (McCune, 1998). Similarly, the US Army spent millions to develop and market its own video game, America’s Army (2005), to inform potential recruits about army life (Brickner, 2004; Nichols, 2009; Wadhams, 2005). Other groups have taken note, with Hezbollah creating two video games to help bolster its cause, while Damascus-based Atkar Games has created two games geared towards countering portrayals of Muslims in most Western-designed video games (Nichols, 2009). Most tellingly, an increasing number of universities around the world offer courses in video game studies and even degrees in video game design (Barlett, 2005; Carlson, 2003a; Foster, 2004a). Work in the video game industry has come to represent a major new hope for professional training in universities. Jobs in the industry have been described as ‘some of the best jobs the American workplace has to offer’ (Richtel, 2005b). In spite of this, increasing numbers of employees are leaving the industry or filing lawsuits citing unfair labour practices (ea_spouse, 2004a, 2004b). Understanding how the industry works is of paramount concern to video game studies, as education in the field is becoming professionalised. But there are other reasons a detailed examination of the industry is needed. Understanding the forces that produce video games that are violent or feature questionable portrayals may help provide solutions to those problems. Moreover, because the video game industry is seen as a desirable field to be employed in, with various policy and education institutions targeting game development for funding, an understanding of how different the video game industry is from other industries is needed. Changing technologies, including mobile phones and cloud-based services, are forcing the industry to adapt both its products and its structure. Time will tell whether these technologies represent a significant threat of disruption to an industry that is heavily concentrated and focused on only a small portion of the global market. Contextualising the potential for such a change is particularly important, as the industry, while global in terms of production, is much more limited in terms of consumption. Estimates suggest that eight countries made up approximately 80 per cent of global video game hardware consumption in 2009. The United States, Canada, Japan and a number of countries in Western Europe are the major consumers of video game products. Software production is even more Copyright material – 9781844573172 INTrODUcTION 3 concentrated, with three countries dominating the production of the bestselling video games of all time: the United States, Japan and the United Kingdom (Nichols, 2013). Such concentration has left many countries and regions to fend for themselves. Countries currently representing markets so small that sales data are rarely included in industry reports – such as Brazil, Argentina and India – are all likely to become important sites for game development (Peréz Fernández, 2013; Portnow et al., 2013; Shaw, 2013). In some cases, these differences can be explained in relation to infrastructure, particularly as the video game industry continues to push towards cloud-based gaming, which requires high penetration of networked technology and reliable, high bandwidth (Aslinger, 2010, 2013). Similarly, the advent of mobile gaming and of digital distribution has opened up game development in places poorly served by the mainstream industry (Moss, 2013). In other cases, political and cultural differences may play in. In a number of countries in the Middle East, for example, one limit on the penetration of video games is due to state concern with their apparent Western influences (Lien, 2013; Šisler, 2013). Finally, there are countries that are also limited by simple economics and labour factors. Lebanon, for example, has struggled bringing together workers who have the skills to make games, even as it has struggled with the political dimensions of gaming (Lien, 2013). In contrast, some countries able to supply the raw materials for the industry’s products or where they may be assembled include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Mozambique, Bolivia, Peru and China though the high cost of the final product leaves many unable to afford them. The STudy of Video GameS The formal study of video games is just beginning. As games have gained in popularity, with expanding audiences and incorporation of more sophisticated technologies, they are now recognised as a unique embodiment of culture worthy of study. It is not uncommon for this study to come under the lens of cultural and textual analysis, research which insists that video games can have legitimate artistic value because they can – though not always – maintain complex narratives and design elements. More than simple entertainment, video games have become texts to be unpacked and analysed. The ability of video games to fulfil ideological roles has resulted in their reevaluation by policy makers. Governments around the world have begun to ask questions and seek solutions to the problems and potentials raised by video games. Even seemingly unlikely institutions such as the US Army have increasingly integrated video games into their recruiting efforts (AP, 2002; Huntemann, 2009). Beyond this ideological and pedagogical potential, there are other industryrelated concerns that, until recently, have received less attention. First, a number Copyright material – 9781844573172 4 THE VIDEO GAME BUSINESS of European countries and American states are actively working to subsidise local video game production because it is seen as a fast-growing, highly profitable, competitive industry. Second, questions dealing with software piracy and intellectual property are posing problems to the industry but have received little attention compared to piracy in film and recorded music. Because of this, it is surprising that the production of video games – the understanding of how the industry is structured and why – has been left largely unaddressed. Since researchers, consumers and policy makers have emphasised that video games can have profound ideological implications, it is ironic that they have largely ignored questions of how and by whom video games are actually created. This lack of attention is, in some part, due to the lack of respect given to the cultural commodity of video games and of the industry that produces them. Long considered a minor sector of other more important industries, it was not difficult to dismiss video games as inconsequential toys for children. It also owes to the success the industry has had at self-description and regulation. Video games have become more than just a subset of the computer or toy industries and, while they are often produced in conjunction with films and television shows, they are distinct entities. Thought similar to all of those products, video games are produced by an important industry, worthy of consideration on its own merits. Its level of concentration and its relations between labour and management should both be taken into account when thinking of an industry as more or less desirable. This study examines the mainstream production of video games in order to better understand the industry and what Bernard Miege refers to as the ‘logics of production’ (Miege, 1989). Figure 1 diagrams the key factors the video game industry has navigated in order to produce the particular logics of production that govern it. The figure, which draws on Sousa’s (2010) explanation of how national culture and regulation could result in distinctions within an industry, elaborates on the range of decisions made both at an industrial and product level. What it suggests is that a number of different factors – audiences and how to engage with them, intra- and inter-industry considerations and the role and location of state control on the industry – impact how video game production works and, in turn, the ways in which video game production itself can change how it relates to those factors in the future. In other words, a different set of choices produces a different sort of production and industry. Video game production could work in various ways. This is important because, while this book focuses on mainstream production, there exist both new challenges and a growing resistance to that industry and, indeed, games are produced that attempt to ignore or subvert the logics of the mainstream industry. Choices about what logics to follow help to create the rules of the distinct markets in which video games Copyright material – 9781844573172 INTrODUcTION 5 AUDIENCE • Type of audience courted • Style of engagement (entertainment, education, critique, etc.) • Type of interaction allowed to audience INDUSTRY • Shelf life of product (planned obsolescence, franchise, etc.) • Ties to other cultural industries (release schedule, branding) STATE • Regulatory environment (self, government, etc.) • Ties to state apparatus INDUSTRIAL FORMULATION AND DECISIONS May result in: • Censorship • Ties between state and industry (ex: games representing state views) May result in: • Convergence of industries • Labour challenges • Intellectual property challenges • Emphasis on ‘risk averse’ products over creativity May result in: • Demographics determining content • Conflict between longer-term audience and newer ones • Audience creation as part of product (mods, community, etc.) • Alternative game styles (serious games, art games, etc.) • Alternative funding strategies (Advergames, etc.) Figure 1 Forces Impacting Video Game Cultural Logics Source: Based on Sousa (2010). are made and sold, as well as labour patterns, methods of production, distribution, marketing and retail practices which bring video games to the point of consumption. Such logics suggest not only the ways in which a particular industry or institution works but also the reasons why it must work in these ways. The logics of the production of video game commodities are a key factor in the messages and ideologies conveyed. Central to the understanding of an industry and its logics is an examination of a product’s markets and consumers – in this case, audiences. As this study shows, the markets and audiences for video games are more significant and varied demographically, though still highly concentrated geographically and economically, than is often acknowledged. However, this study does not attempt to address how a video game will affect players or what those players will take from (or bring to) a video game. This book does not seek to explain how messages are constructed or why certain messages Copyright material – 9781844573172 6 THE VIDEO GAME BUSINESS are more popular than others, except by suggesting that particular types of messages may be more advantageous economically. Instead, this study seeks to provide at least part of the structure that surrounds these questions. If we want to understand the significance of any game, whether it is Pac-Man (1980), Grand Theft Auto: Vice City (2002), Bully (2006) or Manhunt (1983), or even America’s Army, one of the things we need to know is how making a game serves the interest of its producers. Once we have a sense of how and why they made a game, we can better address questions about the effects and meanings of those games. Video games are cultural commodities – the products of a cultural industry organised through the capitalist exchange of goods. As with most media commodities, they have the potential for considerable ideological influence. In part, the conditions under which they are produced and the forces to which they must respond impact the ideologies video games convey. In order to better understand these decisions, this study examines not only the industry as a whole but also the individuals and institutions involved in production. It places video games into a historical context and supplies a motivation for the particulars of production. How video games are produced has helped establish the business as a major media industry in its own right. As with other media industries, the video game industry’s status owes to its successful courting of a highly diverse group of consumers. But it also relies on a high degree of concentration, tight control over the products and who can produce them, and on maintaining its control over content rather than allowing outside regulation. These factors have heavily impacted the relationship between labour and management within the industry as well as how video games are tied to other media. This has played out in two major areas: the convergence of technology and the rise of advertising. Video Game economicS Although limited, there has been some examination of the economics of video games. One of the earliest economic examinations provided an excellent linkage between their production and the Western military-industrialcommunication complex (Toles, 1985). Little attention has been given to these ties following Toles’s study, but in her work lies the foundation for a critical understanding of the video game industry. Instead, later studies have typically focused on the software side, ignoring the production of the various hardware commodities that are also vital to success. A second thread of studies has focused on the portrayals of economic systems within video games. A number of games, in particular online ones such as Ultima Online (1997) and EverQuest (1999), have developed peculiar ‘virtual economies’, which have begun to spill over into the real world (Castronova, Copyright material – 9781844573172 INTrODUcTION 7 2001, 2002, 2005). Typically this has occurred as a result of the accumulation of virtual property that is then sold to other players in the real world. The sale of virtual property has become a chief source of revenue for online games and has gained the attention of regulators in countries and regions, including China and South Korea, where online gaming is particularly popular. Others have moved beyond this to suggest that the study of video games needs to more accurately portray the targeted audiences (Newman, 2002). This will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2 as part of the analysis of the current industry structure. The audience commodity is crucial to the industry and has fallen, as have most areas of technology, into gendered categorisations (Meehan, 2002). This is a dangerous precedent and must be avoided because, as discussed in Chapter 2, the audience has had to shift in response to evolving logics of consumption. One move to understand video games as an economic force emerges from the industry and related sectors. These studies recognise the games as entertainment but also as marketing and policy forces that can be understood, controlled and/or exploited. On one hand, these studies seek to deal with the implied danger of marketing violent content to children as in Anders’s 1999 study. Ultimately, her examination suggests that the industry has to toe a delicate line on the issue of violence, though she does not address the overemphasis on violence in video games in media and research (Anders, 1999). The relation between video games and marketing has only grown more complex as the industry has matured. The modern industry has developed a complex strategy, which may rely on marketing at different phases of the development process, the use of players’ in marketing efforts and the range of ways to use games as marketing devices (Zackariasson and Wilson, 2012). Thomas Hemphill attempts to address the problem of violence in entertainment industries, including video games, by suggesting alternative issue management techniques and ways entertainment media can take better advantage of political views within the US. While his work does not focus explicitly on video games, his suggestions and concerns are mirrored in the literature – particularly in the news media (Hemphill, 2002). More recently, however, researchers have begun to acknowledge the similarities and differences between the video game industry and other media forms. Dmitri Williams lays out the initial structure of the industry, consisting of publishers, developers and hardware manufacturers. He also acknowledges the role of retail and advertising in the economics of the industry. Williams’s work, however, exhibits little concern with the level of concentration in the industry. Moreover, he does not address the problematic labour situation or any of the trickier matters of property control (Williams, 2002, 2003a). Copyright material – 9781844573172 8 THE VIDEO GAME BUSINESS In contrast, Nick Dyer-Witheford offers a critical view of the labour practices, noting that the industry is increasingly taking advantage of transnational labour. He also points out that this labour is highly gendered (Dyer-Witheford, 1999). In later work, he begins to suggest a class structure within the industry that tends to fall along income and educational lines in addition to those of gender and nationality (Dyer-Witheford, 2002; Dyer-Witheford and De Peuter, 2009). Like much of the study of game hardware production, however, these studies focus on console production ignoring, in particular, the impact of handheld games on the industry. One of the best examinations of the global dynamics at play within video game production, his work suggests many questions about the nature of industrialised video game labour. As Zackariasson and Wilson note in relation to marketing, game players often contribute more than their consumption (2012). The industry also exhibits a particular set of labour practices that rely on the work of consumers. Most notable of these is the concept of ‘modding’ or the creation of game expansions by fans, which tends to occur particularly in the action and Role-Playing Game (RPG) genres. These, however, are only some of the ways players might take on the peculiar function of labour in the industry (Postigo, 2003). Along similar lines, Klang examines the struggles of ownership between fans and the industry. Drawing on ideas raised by Castronova, Klang examines the ways in which ‘avatars’ – or the representations of players in games, particularly RPG and Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPG) – become contested zones of intellectual property (Klang, 2004). Raising more questions than it answers, Klang’s study suggests a number of interesting directions in which video games may force the ongoing intellectual property debates plaguing communication industries. These questions are particularly crucial in China and other countries where online gaming is popular (Chung and Fung, 2013; Ihlwan, 2007; Rosenberg, 2010). Two of the most in-depth examinations of the industry have come from European scholars. The first focuses on the battle in the European market between 16-bit consoles in the mid-1990s (Hayes et al., 1995). While primarily a historical study, a number of illuminating features are first analysed here in the economic literature. Europe has historically been treated as a secondary market for video games, with hardware lagging roughly a generation behind. As will be discussed in Chapter 1, one measure of the industry’s history is marked by console generation. Each new issue of a console, which tends to happen every three to five years, is marked as a new generation. For much of the industry’s history, the consoles available in many markets, including Europe, were one generation behind what was available in the North American and Japanese markets. It is in the period scrutinised by Hayes et al. (1995) that Copyright material – 9781844573172 INTrODUcTION 9 Europe begins to emerge as a primary market with its own systems of production and distribution. But the authors also discuss the use of planned obsolescence as a marketing tool, something acknowledged in earlier (primarily industry) literature, but not examined. In contrast, Kerr (2006a) details a more recent and more global perspective on the video game industry. Kerr situates video game production firmly within the question of video game meaning, allowing the global nature of the industry to be seen as a factor in the ways in which games themselves are used. This also reinforces the view that video games must be seen as creations of culture even as they are tools that can enforce a culture’s dominant views. Kerr also furnishes a useful sketch of the European market in spite of the scarce data available, providing a good sense of not only how games are made but of how the costs for them break down in the European case (Kerr, 2006a). She has also examined the challenges the UK and Irish game industries face in a globalised production system, with increasing labour shortages (Kerr, 2012). The questions her work raises are particularly important as the video game industry has become a focus of a broad range of policy initiatives within the European Union and a number of individual member nations (Kerr, 2013). The book Digital Play examines similar issues, drawing on political economic concerns as a means of discussing the marketing of video games as a cultural force for audiences to respond to (Kline et al., 2003). While proffering some excellent frameworks for understanding the overall layout of the industry, little attention is given here to the system of production itself. Rather, video games are treated as cultural texts that must be understood in terms of their messages and marketing as a system for audience response and understanding. Finally, the nature of competition internationally within the industry has raised the question of territorial lockouts. Territorial lockouts occur when the industry creates products that only work in particular geographic markets – for example, DVDs that will play on machines sold for a specific market. The video game industry also creates products with these lockouts in mind. Ip and Jacobs (2004) attempt to examine reasons for this practice, concluding that the video game industry seems unsure about it, but has tended to follow it for almost traditional reasons: to protect against piracy and to spur creativity. However, their study suggests that both consumers and producers are increasingly sceptical about the practice. Such a practice also raises important concerns in regards to cultural imperialism that go unaddressed within the study and the industry. These studies often suggest that it is important to think of video games as more than an American or Japanese product. Like the film and larger computer industry, the video game industry has gone global, incorporating not only global audiences but global forms of production as well (Kerr and Flynn, Copyright material – 9781844573172 10 THE VIDEO GAME BUSINESS 2002). In addition, the industry has cemented ties and borrowed forms from other industries, most notably film (Howells, 2002). This trend has continued and is reflected in the current structure of the industry discussed in Chapter 4. The field of video game studies has grown considerably in recent years. It is imperative that this field pay attention to the institutional nature of the commodities and texts being studied in order to better ground their understanding of how they are used and what they mean (Douglas, 2002). Video game commodities have evolved beyond being toys for adolescent boys; indeed, they were never that simple. Video games must be viewed as unique cultural artifacts – both tool and art – that can be used in a variety of ways for a variety of purposes by a range of players. Video games are capable of both reinforcing and subverting ideologies and stereotypes. However, what the field of video game studies is lacking must also be considered. It seems clear that to better make sense of how video games work in terms of play and meaning, an in-depth, systematic analysis of the industry within its historical context is necessary. Based on the existing literature discussed above, a number of important trends warrant examination at the institutional level. First, the video game industry has become one of the dominant cultural industries of our age that earns billions in revenue; employs a substantial, globalised labour force; and draws the attention of a sizeable audience across a range of platforms. Second, the industry is tied to a number of other industries including the film and computer industries, becoming an important factor in their profitability. It has also attracted increasing attention from policy makers because, as a burgeoning sector in the information and creative industries, it is seen as important to growth and development. Third, the continued anxiety about the effects of video games requires a consideration of how games are produced. Despite some public concern – and even state interest – about video game effects, the policing of content has all too often been left to the industry. Fourth, the rise of video game studies as a field of academic interest has resulted in the creation of game studies programmes at a number of universities around the world. These programmes have focused largely on professional development. If only for the pragmatic reason of understanding the industries such programmes are training students for, a systematic study of the video game industry is required. Fifth, histories of the industry have managed to present it in a largely ahistorical and acultural fashion. Some attempt that considers the industry in relation to the events, institutions and culture surrounding its development is necessary. Finally, the shift felt in both effects and cultural research regarding who uses video games and to what end calls for a more thorough understanding of the practices engaged in directing the industry’s activities: at Copyright material – 9781844573172 Index Notes t = table/diagram. Page numbers in bold indicate detailed treatment. Titles of games etc. do not distinguish between media unless specific distinction is made in the text. Consoles are listed under the developer’s name except in a few cases receiving extended or frequent mention. 8 Mile (2002) 120 Act of War 20t Activision-Blizzard 11, 56, 63–7, 129 bestselling games 56, 65–6 corporate profile 64t global expansion 66 lawsuits 66–7 market share 53t, 60t, 62, 62t merchandising 65, 66 sales 64t actors, voice work in video games 126 adults, proportion of purchasing audience 33–4, 42, 49–50 Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) 15, 17, 81 advertising 134–7, 139, 168, 169–70 cross-media 111–12, 120 in-game 136–7 measurement of effectiveness 137 spending on 134–5, 136 see also custom games Aerosmith 130 AFTRA (American Federation of Television and Radio Actors) 159–60 Age of Empires 89t Age of Mythology 89t A.I.: Artificial Intelligence (2001) 127 Aktar Games 2 Alcorn, Allan 25 AMD 80 American Idol (2001–4) 50 America’s Army (2005) 2, 6, 72 Anders, Kelly 7 animation(s) 124–5 in-game creation 126–7 AOL 141–2 AOL Games 69 Apple 92–6, 103 development costs 96 distribution of profits 96 labour conditions 147 products see iPad etc. arcades/arcade games 25–6, 32–3, 105–6 21st-century remodelling 105–6 decline 105 early dominance 13–14, 14t as test markets 105 The Art of Halo (2004) 131 Assassin’s Creed 58t Asteroids (1979) 20t, 21 Atari 11, 18–19, 19–25, 38, 105, 126, 156 audiences 34 corporate profile 20t expansion (1980s) 22–3 Atari cont. failures/losses 21, 22, 27, 32, 45, 170 impact in Europe 22 lawsuits 23, 24 market share 21–2, 34, 62t marketing 31 reasons for success 24, 30 reissue of old games 67 relations with smaller developers 20 relaunch as public company 24–5 representativeness of industry as a whole 19, 20 sale/purchase of company 21, 22 sales figures 20t, 21 successes 21–2, 23–4 Atari consoles 400 19 2600 14t, 19, 26t 2600 Junior 26t 5200 26t 7800 26t Jaguar 27t Jaguar CD 27t Lynx 25, 26t, 29 PONG 26t Stunt Cycle 26t Super PONG 26t Video Pinball 26t Atari Flashback 20t Copyright material – 9781844573172 218 Atlus USA 60t audience(s) 32–4, 48–52 age 13, 16, 32–4, 42, 49–50, 49t, 52, 68, 85, 117, 127, 170 diversity 48 expansion 78, 111 gender 50–2, 50t, 68 national/regional distribution 48–9, 51t studies 7 targeting 5t, 7, 10–11, 16, 33, 40 audio workers 149 gender 152t, 154t salaries 149t, 154t Australia age of gamers 50 female gamers 51, 51t handheld sales 92t, 93t ratings system 74, 75t sales by genre 71t, 72 software sales 57–8, 59t video game market 49 video game production 168 Avalanche 63 Bally Manufacturing Association 40 Professional Arcade console 26t Bandai 127 WonderSwan console 27t Battletech Center 105 Bayonetta 39t The Beatles: Rock Band (2009) 52, 129–30 Bejeweled 69 BestBuy 109, 168 ‘Beta testers’ 143, 149 earnings 150 Big Brain Academy 58t BioShock (2007) 135, 158t BioShock 2 (2010) 135 BitTorrent 77 Black and White 89t Blondie 129 THE VIDEO GAME BUSINESS BloodRayne (film, 2005) 124 BloodRayne (game, 2002) 124 Blu-ray 81 BMX XXX (2002) 74 Boll, Uwe 124 books, games inspired by 131 The Bourne Supremacy (2004) 120 Brain Age/Brain Training 35t Brave (2012) 125 Brutal Legend (2009) 67 Buena Vista Games 123t Bully (2006) 6, 158t Burnout 3 59t Burnout Paradise (2008) 136–7 Bushnell, Nolan 18, 20–1, 30, 105 business staff see management Butterfly.net 81 Call of Duty (2003) 63, 64t, 65 Call of Duty franchise 65–7 Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 (2009) 65, 66–7 Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 (2011) 65–6 Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare 58t, 59t Campbell-Kelly, Martin 28 Canada game industry employment/salaries 149t, 150 game regulation 73, 74, 75t Capcom 60t Carnegie Mellon University 162 Cartoon Network 127 Castronova, Edward 161 casual games 67–9, 101, 134, 137–8, 171 interest of established developers in 69 CDs, playability via computer 80, 86 Centipede 20t Cerrati, Michael 130 children exposure to inappropriate content 7, 108–9 increased media access 111 mobile apps aimed at 96 seen (wrongly) as primary audience 13, 33, 42, 88 as target audience 40, 85, 117–18, 125 China game regulation 7, 77, 161 online gaming 66, 161 outsourcing of production to 82, 90, 144–6, 151 video game market 45, 48, 59, 66 workers’ earnings 145–6 chips, developments in 26 see also microchips Christmas, game sales concentrated around 18–19, 25, 47, 140, 168 Chrysler 138 Clancy, Tom 131 CLC (College Licensing Corporation) 132 Cole, David 100 Coleco consoles Colecovision 26t Gemini 26t Telstar 26t Telstar Alpha 26t Telstar Arcade 26t Telstar Classic 26t Telstar Colortron 26t Telstar Combat 26t Telstar Gemini 26t college athletes, licensing of 132–3, 138–9 Coltan (mineral) 146 Comcast 128 Command and Conquer franchise 54t, 116t Copyright material – 9781844573172 INDEx commodification (of video game production) 169 Commodore 64 PC 29 Commodore International Ltd 22, 23 comp (compensatory) time 156–7 computer industry, employment in 141–4 (non-)unionisation 141–3 similarities with video game industry 142–3, 150, 154–5 computers early history 16 increasing memory capacity 18 see also computer industry; home computers Congo see Democratic Republic of the Congo consoles adaptation for non-gaming purposes 81 bestselling 85t competition between 40–1, 83–7 development, by decade 26–7t dominant companies 83–5, 83t as driving force in industry 109 global production levels 83 market share 56, 57t, 83t, 84t, 86t, 99t networking 15, 37–8 prices 33, 34, 84–5, 101 sales by country/region 86t superseded by home computers 27 see also handhelds convergence 85–6, 87–8, 171 ‘Convergence Epoch’ (2000–10) 14–15, 14t, 109 Corcoran, Elizabeth 143 219 Counter Strike 103t Crash Bandicoot franchise 64t, 98t, 116t Crazy Taxi (1999) 39t, 77 ‘crunch time’ 148–9, 155–6, 157–9, 164 custom games 137–8, 139 Dafoe, Willem 159 Dave and Buster’s (restaurant/arcade chain) 105–6 Day of Defeat 103t Dean, Howard 72, 111 Def Jam (band) 52, 129 Def Jam (game franchise) 52, 54t Del Ray Publishing 131 Democratic Republic of the Congo, minerals sourced from 82, 146 designers 149 gender 152t, 154t salaries 149t, 154t Diablo 64t digital distribution 100–4 (potential) impact on industry 104, 174 specialised distributors 103–4 Diner Dash (2003) 68 Dirty Harry (1971) 125 Disney 96 acquisitions 63, 69, 123t Channel 127 corporate profile 122–3t game development unit 118–19, 122–4 Interactive Studios 60t, 123t licensing revenue 117 DJ Hero (2009) 129 Donkey Kong (1981) 35t, 37, 116t Doom (1993) 63 Dora the Explorer 158t dot-com industry 142 Dr. Kawashima’s Brain Training 58t Dragon Ball Z 20t Dragon Quest franchise 116t Dragon Quest IV: Michibikareshi Monotachi 58t DreamWorks SKG 118–19 DreamWorks Animation 124 Duck Hunt (1984) 117t, 118 Dungeon Siege (2002) 124 Dungeons and Dragons 20t DVDs, playability via computer 80, 86 Dyer-Witheford, Nick 8, 16 ‘E’ (universal) rating 75–6 ea_spouse see Hoffman, Erin Eastern Europe, outsourcing of production to 151, 168 Eastwood, Clint 125 eBay 77 education, and video games 162–4, 172 breakdown by country 163t Electronic Arts 11, 24, 45–6, 54–6, 70, 95, 129, 167 college sponsorships 163–4 corporate profile 54–5t focus on video game development 55–6 franchises 54t, 115, 116–17, 116t job cuts 157 labour practices 77, 155–7 lawsuits 77, 155–7 licensing/merchandising deals 38, 56, 63, 72, 132–3, 138 market share 53t, 60t, 61, 62, 62t mergers/acquisitions 69 revenue per employee 156–7, 156t sales 47t, 48, 54t, 56, 137 studios owned 55t Copyright material – 9781844573172 220 electronic games, rooms devoted to 33–4 Electronic Software Association (ESA) 34 Electronics Boutique 106 Emerson Arcadia 2001 console 26t employment (in video game industry) 2, 140–60, 164–5, 172–3 age of employees 142, 152–3, 159 bonuses on offer 142, 150, 156, 165 closures/layoffs 143, 151, 157 compared with computer/information industries 141–4, 150 comp(ensatory) time 156–7 creation of jobs 141 credit for work 157–9 demography 151–3 disputes/lawsuits 77, 155–9, 165 distinguished from other creative industries 142–3 duration of employment 153, 165, 168, 172–3 gender of employees 8, 143–4, 152–3, 152t, 154t, 159, 163, 165, 173 job (dis)satisfaction 153, 165, 168–9, 172–3 labour practices 8, 38, 77, 144, 150, 164 (notional) benefits 140–1 numbers employed 142 overtime, unpaid/disputed 155–7 salaries 145–6, 149t, 150, 153–4, 153t skills 140–1, 164 working conditions 144–7, 164–5 THE VIDEO GAME BUSINESS employment cont. see also ‘crunch time’; player-centred labour; unionisation Enter the Matrix (2003) 126 Entertainment Software Association (ESA) 70–2, 75, 154 Entertainment Software Ratings Board (ESRB, US) 73 Epoch Pocket Computer 26t ESPN 63, 132, 158t E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) 21–2, 24, 32, 118 Europe age of players 49–50 game regulation 75t, 169 gender of players 51, 51t hardware preferences 86–7 impact of individual developers 22, 36 salaries 149t sales by genre 72 software sales 57–8, 58t video game market 8–9, 44–5, 48, 144, 168 video game production 149 EVE Online (2003) 161 EverQuest (1999) 6–7, 161 Facebook 65, 68 Fairchild Electronics 18 Channel F console 26t Farmville (2009) 68 FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association) 134 FIFA franchise 54t, 134 FIFA ’13 (2012) 134 FIFA 2008 58t film industry, links with video game industry 79, 115–27, 170–1 comparison of box office and game sales 118, 119t, 171 film industry cont. dominance of film 118, 120 licensing deals 117–18, 119–20, 138 shelf life of products 120 see also films; Hollywood films based on video games 120–1, 121t, 124 formatted for games machines 120 tools for making in-game 126–7, 172 video games based on 21–2, 63, 120–1, 125–6 see also Hollywood Final Fantasy franchise (1987–) 61, 98t, 116t Finding Nemo (2003) 125, 127 Finland age of gamers 50 gender of gamers 51, 51t Flight Simulator 89t Forza Motorsport 2 59t ‘Foundational Epoch’ (1972–6) 13–14, 14t, 19 Fox Animation Studios 124 Interactive 77, 119–20 TV network 127 France, handheld sales 92t, 93t franchises 57, 115–27 bestselling 116t rise in popularity 115 target audience 117–18 Frogger (1983) 59t From Russia with Love (1963) 70 Gamasutra.com 157 Game Breakers (2003) 138 Game Developer Magazine 163–4 Game Show Network 127 GameFly 108 Copyright material – 9781844573172 INDEx Gameloft 104 Gamepark GP32 console 27t GameStop 106–7 corporate profile 107t Gamewatch.org 156 Gangster: West Coast Hustle (2009) 104 genre(s) 30–1, 67–72 sales by 70–1tt, 70–2 Germany handheld sales 92t, 93t ratings system 74, 75t, 169 Ghost Recon franchise (2001–) 131 Gizmondo console 27t global financial crisis (2008–9) 143, 151 globalisation 90, 168–9 Go, Diego, Go 158t God of War 98t The Godfather (1972) 70, 125, 126 Godzilla 20t GoldenEye: Rogue Agent (2004) 157 Google 69, 92 governments, involvement in game production/research 2, 3, 10, 15, 44–5, 76, 151–2, 162 see also regulation Gran Turismo franchise 98t, 116t Gran Turismo 4 59t Grand Theft Auto franchise 104, 116t, 157, 158t Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (2004) 56–7, 59t, 74, 118 Grand Theft Auto: Vice City (2002) 6, 117t accompanying albums 129 Grand Theft Auto 4 (2008) 101–2 Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five 129 graphics, (early) lack of sophistication 25–6 221 Greenpeace 146 Guitar Hero (2005) 64t, 67, 102, 129 Guitar Hero: Aerosmith (2008) 130 Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock 59t Gulf & Western 39–40 .hack/sign (2002) 127 Hajimete no Wii 58t Half-Life (1998) 103, 103t Hall, Jason 126 Halo franchise (2001–) 57, 77, 88, 89t, 126, 135 Halo 2 (2004) 56–7 strategy guide 131 Halo 3 (2007) 59t, 118 development costs 148 handhelds 91–6, 98–100 bestselling 85t competition to 99–100 main developers 36 market shares 91, 100t price of games 99 rise in popularity 25, 29–30 sales by country 92t, 93t hardware 80–101, 167 impact on other media technologies 81, 82 multimedia capabilities 80–1 outsourcing of production 82, 90, 141, 144–6, 164, 168–9 planned obsolescence 30, 32, 128, 140, 168 resource supply chain 145t trends in 25–30 types 45 upgradeability 30 see also consoles; handhelds; home computers; microchips Harry Potter franchise 1, 54t, 56, 116, 125 Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone 117t Hawkins, Trip 24, 55 Hayes, Michael 8–9 HD compatibility 86, 89–90 Hemphill, Thomas 7 Henson, Jim 124 Hezbollah 2 history of video games 11, 12–42, 14t, 41–2 epochs in 13–15, 14t, 19 Hoff, Ted 27 Hoffman, Erin (ea_spouse) 155–6, 157 Hollywood alliances with developers 42, 118–20, 168 back catalogue, games based on 125–6 misunderstanding of video games 121–2, 170 as model for video game industry 42, 45–6, 55, 56, 63, 73, 138 profit margins 116 see also actors; film industry; films Holmdahl, Todd 88 home computers increased use for games 29 preferred genres 72 rise in popularity 19, 26, 27, 29, 29t House of the Dead (2003) 124 Howard Dean for Iowa (2003) 72, 111 IBM 80, 81, 86 microchip design/ manufacture 90, 113–14 In the Name of the King (2006) 124 The Incredibles (2004) 77, 125, 135 India, outsourcing of production to 82, 144, 151 Copyright material – 9781844573172 222 Infogames 24–5, 62t, 67 information industry 141–4 employment trends 143–4 wages 153–4 Intel 80, 88, 90 Pentium 3/4 chips 113–14 rise in profits (1970s) 28 intellectual property 8, 77, 162, 171–2 see also employment: credit for work Interactive Entertainment Merchants Association (IEMA) 74–5 Interactive Software Federation of Europe (IFSE) 48 Internet creation 15 creation of new jobs 141–2 file sharing 77 social networking sites 65, 68 see also online games; social games IOC (International Olympic Committee) 133 Ip, Barry 9 iPad 94, 96, 134 iPhone 92–3, 99–100, 134 apps, development costs 96 growth in sales 94–5 iPod 91, 92–3, 94–5, 134 Iran, ratings system 75t iShoot 96 Jackson, Michael 129 Jacobs, Gabriel 9 James, Rick 129 James Bond franchise 1, 54t, 56, 64t, 70, 115, 116, 116t Japan handheld sales 92t, 93t hardware preferences 86–7 ratings system 74, 75t, 169 relations between developers 90–1 THE VIDEO GAME BUSINESS Japan cont. salaries 149t sales by genre 72 software sales 57–9, 58t trade agreements 38 video game market 36, 44, 48–9, 144, 168 video game production 44, 46, 149 Journey (band) 128–9 Journey Escape (1982) 128–9 Kent, Steven L. 28 Kenya, mobile gaming in 104 Kerr, Aphra 9 Kingdom Hearts 122t, 123t Klang, Mathias 8 Kline, Stephen et al., Digital Play 9 Konami 60t, 62t Kotick, Bobby 65 Lara Croft, Tomb Raider (2001) 121t, 124 Lara Croft, Tomb Raider: The Cradle of Life (2003) 121t, 124 Lebanon governmental use of video games 2 video game production 3 Left for Dead 103t The Legend of Zelda 35t, 116t licensing 62–3, 78, 115–27, 138, 167, 169–70 agreements with sports franchises 56, 63 cross-media 38, 117–18, 119–20 imbalance of agreements 118 see also films; sports games Limbaugh, Stephen, Judge 73 Lineage franchise 116t litigation between game developers 23, 24, 66–7 brought by employees 77, 155–9 Lizzy McGuire (2001–4) 50 The Lord of the Rings trilogy (2001–3)/franchise 1, 54t, 56, 120–1, 125 The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle-Earth (2004) 157 LucasArts 60t, 115, 120–1 ‘M’ (Mature) rating 74–5 ‘machinima’ 126–7 Machito and his Afro-Cuban Orchestra 129 Madden, John 132 Madden NFL franchise (1993–) 54t, 115, 116t, 132 Madden NFL ’13 (2012) 132 Mafia Wars (2009) 68 Magnavox consoles 34 Odyssey 26t Odyssey 100 26t Odyssey 200 26t Odyssey 300 26t Odyssey 400 26t Odyssey 500 26t Odyssey 2000 26t Odyssey 3000 26t Odyssey 4000 26t Maguire, Tobey 159 management departments 149–50 relationship with workforce 169 salaries 149t, 153–4, 153t, 173 Manhunt (1983) 6, 76, 158t Mario Party 8 58t, 59t Mario Party DS 58t Markoff, John 81 Marvel Comics 122t, 124 Copyright material – 9781844573172 INDEx Massachusetts Institute of Technology 162 Massive (advertising group) 137 The Matrix trilogy (1999–2003)/franchise 20t, 126 Mattel consoles Intellivision 26t Intellivision II 26t Maverick Records 129 Max Payne franchise 157, 158t McGregor, Ewan 159 McGuire, Mike 102 Medal of Honour 54t Mega Man franchise 116t merchandising 56, 63, 65, 66, 169–70 Michael Jackson’s Moonwalker (1989) 129 microchips 112–14 development of 27–30 dominant companies 80 individualised capabilities 114 manufacture 82 market shares 113t mineral resources 82 outsourcing of production 82 stabilisation of market 28 toxic components/procedures 82, 146–7 unique to one developer 90, 114 Micromania 106 Microsoft 11, 87–91, 167, 171 bestselling games 56–7 Chinese manufacturing centres 90 corporate profile 89t development strategy 88–91, 144 directors 88 223 Microsoft cont. HD compatibility, introduction of 89–90 losses 85, 88, 144 market share 53t, 59–61, 60t, 62, 62t, 83t, 99t online distribution system 102–3 price wars 84–5, 87 publishing operation 53 relations with game developers 90–1 sales 47t, 48, 89t software development 61–2 unique chip, design of 90 Microsoft consoles see XBox; XBox 360 Middle East, mobile gaming in 104 Midnight Club 158t Midway Games 60t, 105, 121–2, 124, 128 Miege, Bernard 4 military games see US Army, recruitment/training games Milton Bradley 18, 28, 33–4 Comp IV game system 33 Microvision console 26t minerals, sourcing of 72, 146–7, 147t Missile Command (1980) 52 MLB (Major League Baseball) 133 MMORPGs (Massive Multiplayer Online RolePlaying Games) 6–7, 8, 67, 160–2, 165 compared to real-world economies 161 intellectual property in 77, 162, 171–2 scale 81 trading of assets in realworld currency 7, 161 mobile games 68–9, 91–6, 171 benefits to software developers 95–6 comparison/competition with handhelds 99–100 costs of development 95, 96 deals between developers and telecom companies 93 impact on industry 104 opening up of new regions 104 price 99 profit levels 96 ‘Modularity Epoch’ (1976–2000) 13–14, 14t, 19 Monster Hunter Portable 2nd 58t Montag, Sandy 132 Moore’s Law 18, 80 Mortal Kombat franchise (1992–) 105, 116t Mortal Kombat (film, 1999) 121t Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) 73 MTV 102, 127, 128, 129–30 The Mummy Returns (2001) 120 The Muppets 124 music games based around 52, 128–30 industry, similarity with video games 79 licensing arrangements 130 MVP Baseball 54t MySpace 68 Myst: The Official Strategy Guide (2004) 131 Namco Bandai 60t NASCAR 54t NBA (National Basketball Association) 132 Copyright material – 9781844573172 224 NBA Live 54t NBA Street 54t NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) 132–3, 138–9 NCAA Football franchise 54t NCAA Football 2005 (2004) 132 NCSoft 60t NEC consoles Turbo Express 26t Turbo Grafx 16 26t TurboDuo 27t Need for Speed franchise 54t Need for Speed: ProStreet 58t Need for Speed: Underground 2 59t Need for Speed: Underground Platinum 59t NetEase 66 NetFlix 108 networking 15 developers’ moves into 37–8, 81 ‘Networked Epoch’ (2010–) 14t, 15, 109 Neverwinter Nights 20t New Super Mario Bros. 58tt, 117t New Zealand, game regulation 75t, 76, 169 NFL (National Football League) 132, 133 NHL (National Hockey League) 132–3 NHL (game franchise) 54t, 132 NHL ’13 (2012) 132–3 Nicholas, Ethan 96 Nickelodeon 96, 127 Nike 138 Nintendo 11, 19, 23, 34–5, 42, 44, 167, 171 advertising 37 competition 37, 40–1 control of products 34, 38, 45 THE VIDEO GAME BUSINESS Nintendo cont. corporate profile 35t dominance of market areas 91, 98, 117–18 franchises 35t, 37, 115, 116t, 117–18 game ratings 75–6 impact on US market 36 investigation by US legal bodies 38 labour practices 38 lawsuits 24 market share 35–6, 57–8, 59–61, 60t, 62, 62t, 83t, 91, 99t microchips 90, 113, 114 as model for industry 34, 37 networking of consoles 37–8 online distribution system 102–3 reasons for success 37–8 regional markets 36 retail outlets 106 sales 35t, 36, 47t, 48 target audiences 34, 85, 117–18 Nintendo consoles 64 27t, 35t, 40, 85t DS 27t, 35t, 85t, 93t, 95 Entertainment System (NES) 14t, 26t, 35t, 36, 40, 85t Entertainment System 2 27t Game and Watch 26t Gameboy 26t, 29, 35–6, 35t, 85t, 91, 93t, 98 Gameboy Advance 27t, 35t, 85t, 93t Gameboy Color 27t Gameboy DS 91 Gamecube 27t, 35–6, 35t, 40, 75–6, 85t N-Gage 27t Super Nintendo (SNES) 27t, 35t, 85t Nintendo consoles cont. Super Nintendo 2 27t Virtual Boy 35t Wii see separate main heading Nintendogs 35t, 59t, 117t Nokia 41, 92 Noughts and Crosses see TicTac-Toe nVidia 80, 90, 112, 114 Obama, Barack 136–7 Olympic Games, video games based on 133–4 Olympic Gold (1992) 133 online games 67–70 file sharing 77 popularity in Far East 45, 66 see also casual games; MMORPGs; social games Open Season (2006) 125 Osbourne, Ozzy 129 overtime time off in exchange for 156–7 unpaid/disputed 155–6 Pac-Man (1980) 6, 21, 52 Pacino, Al 126 Panasonic consoles 3DO FZ-10 27t 3DO Interactive 27t Paramount 124, 131, 137 patents, violations of 77 PBS Kids Sprout 96 Perfect Dark 89t Periscope (1965) 39 PGA Tour 54t Pimp My Ride (2004) 128 piracy 76–7 Pirate Islands (2002) 127 Pirates of the Caribbean franchise 122t, 124 Pitfall! (1982) 63 Pixar 124–5 Playdium.net 105 Playdom 69 Copyright material – 9781844573172 INDEx player-centred labour 160–2, 165, 171–2 Playfish 69 PlayStation 2 14t, 27t, 30, 40, 98t compatibility 86, 97 competition with rival models 85t customers’ loyalty to 44, 81, 84, 108, 109 marketing 135 sourcing of materials 146 technological capacities 97 PlayStation 3 14t, 27t, 98t chips 113–14 compatibility 86 competition with rival models 83–4, 84t, 85t, 97–8 development costs 61, 66, 85, 97–8, 114 purchase by US Air Force 112 technological advances 81, 85, 90 Pogo 69 Pokémon franchise (1996–) 35t, 116t, 118 Pokémon: The First Movie (1998) 121t Pokémon: The Movie 2000 (1999) 121t Pokemon Blue/Red/Green version 117t Pokémon Diamond/Pearl 58t, 59t Pokemon Emerald 59t Pokémon Fushigi no Dungeon: Yami no Tankentai 58t politics, games based on/referencing 72, 111, 136–7 Pong (1972) 14t, 18, 20t, 21 PopCap 52, 68, 69 Portal 103t Prima Games 130–1 225 Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time (2010) 121t Pro Evolution Soccer 2008 58t Pro Skater (1999) 136 producers 149 gender 152t, 154t salaries 149t, 154t programmers 149 gender 152t, 154t salaries 149t, 154t PSP (PlayStation Portable) 27t, 36, 85t, 91, 93t, 98–9, 98t films especially formatted for 120 publishers 53–4 concentration of power 53, 78 emergence 45–6 licensing agreements 62–3 market share 53t, 60t publishing, and video game industry 130–1 Puente, Tito 129 Puma (sports wear) 136 Qualcomm 87 Raiders of the Lost Ark (film/game, 1981) 21 Rainbow Six franchise (1998–) 131 Ratchet & Clank franchise 98t Ratchet & Clank 2 Platinum 59t rating(s) 72–6 game sales by 74t national agencies 75t, 76 national systems 75t, 76, 78 RCA 18 Studio II console 26t Real Networks 51–2 Red Dead Redemption (2010) 157, 158t, 159 Red Dead Revolver (2004) 157, 158t RedBox 108 regulation 72–8, 169 national systems 75t, 78 state-level (US) 73 see also rating(s) rentals 108–9, 168 breakdown by outlet 108t Resident Evil (2002) 124 Resident Evil: Afterlife (2010) 121t Resident Evil: Apocalypse (2004) 121t retail 106–9, 168 controls 108–9 market shares 106–7, 107t revenue per employee, company success measured by 156–7, 156t, 173 Road Rash (1994) 129 Rochester Institute of Technology, NY 162 Rock Band series (2007–) 54t, 102, 129–30 Rockstar Games 11, 70, 101–2 bestselling games 56–7 employment disputes 157–9 market share 62t role-playing games (RPGs) 8, 72 see also MMORPGs Rollercoaster Tycoon 20t Rosen Enterprises 39–40 Ruggill, Judd 73 Russell, Steve 17, 18, 25 Russia, software piracy 77 Sahnda Entertainment 162 Sakaguchi, Hironobi 61 sales by genre 70–1tt global distribution 46–8, 58–9tt, 144 global total 47–8 Copyright material – 9781844573172 226 sales cont. hardware, trends in 29t seasonal 18–19, 25, 47, 140, 168 software 31, 31t, 57t Sammy, merger with Sega 41 Scarface (1983) 125 Schulman, Milton 32, 34 Schwarzenegger, Arnold 126 Sci/Eidos 60t Screen Actors Guild 126, 159–60 Second Life (2003) 161, 162 Sega 11, 19, 38–41 competition 40–1 console production 40–1 corporate profile 39t lawsuits 77 market share 60t merger with Sammy 41 Olympic Games licensing 133–4 sale/purchase of company 39–40 sales 39t survival strategy 40–1 Sega consoles 40–1 CD for Genesis 27t CD for Genesis 2 27t CDX 27t Dreamcast 27t, 39t, 40 Game Gear 26t, 39t Genesis 26t, 40, 85t Genesis 2 27t Genesis 3 26t, 27t Genesis 32x 27t Master System 26t Mega Drive see Sega consoles: Genesis Mega Jet 39t Nomad 27t, 39t Saturn 27t, 39t, 40 SG-1000 40 semiconductors 28 production 147 ‘serious games’ 72 THE VIDEO GAME BUSINESS service industries employment levels 142 gender of employees 143–4 sex, role in gameplay/ marketing 74 Shrek franchise 63, 64t Shrek (2001) 127 Shrek 2 (2004) 125, 135 Sid Meier’s Civilization 158t Silent Hill (2006) 121t SimCity (1989) 54t, 127 Simon (1978) 17, 18, 33 The Simpsons Game 58t The Simpsons: Road Rage (2001) 77 Simpson’s Hit & Run Platinum 59t The Sims franchise 54t, 116t, 127 The Sims (2000) 117t The Sims 2: University 59t Sims 3 (2009) 54t The Sims Online (2002) 136 Skorpion K.O. (2002) 138 Skylanders: Spyro’s Adventure (2011) 66 Slide 69 smart phones 41, 91–2, 99–100 global sales 94t SNK consoles NEO-GEO 27t NEO-GEO CD 27t NEO-GEO Pocket 27t social games 65, 68 SOCOM 98t software 52–4, 167 costs 101 developers’ salaries 149t development process 56–63, 148–9, 148t development time/costs 61, 147–8, 148t, 150 division of labour 14, 53–4 genres 30–1, 67–72 growth of industry 142 software cont. importance within industry 43 key features 30–1 outsourcing of production 151 production sites 147, 149, 151 sales by platform 57t separation from hardware 14, 45, 167 small developers 52 trends in 30–2, 41–2, 45 Sonic the Hedgehog 39t, 95, 116t, 134 Sony 11, 44, 97–101, 167, 171 acquisitions 97 corporate profile 98t development of Cell processor 86, 113–14 entry into console market 97 franchises 98t, 115, 116t handhelds 91, 96, 98–100, 100t job cuts 151 lawsuits 77, 155 market share 59–61, 60t, 62, 62t, 83t, 91, 99t, 100t networking of games 81 online distribution system 102–3 price wars 84–5, 87 publishing operation 53 rentals 108 sales 47t, 48, 98t sourcing of hardware materials 146 work with cellphone manufacturers 93 Sony consoles PlayStation 27t, 30, 35–6, 85t, 97, 98t PlayStation 2/3 see separate main heading PlayStation PS1 27t Copyright material – 9781844573172 INDEx Sony consoles cont. PSP see separate main heading PSP Go 98t, 99 Sony SkatePark (2002) 136 Sousa, Catarina 4 South Korea game regulation 7, 75t online gaming 45, 161 outsourcing of production to 151 video game market 45, 48 Southern Methodist University 163 Space Invaders (1978) 21 Spacewar! (1962) 15–17, 18, 25 Spain age of gamers 50 gender of gamers 51, 51t handheld sales 92t, 93t Spears, Britney 1 Spider-Man franchise 63, 64t Spider-Man 2 (2004) 125 Spielberg, Steven 22, 127 Spike TV 127–8 The SpongeBob Squarepants Movie (2004) 125 sports games 131–4, 138–9 licensing agreements 56, 63, 72, 132–3, 138 licensing trends 133–4 market share 72 role in development of industry 30–1 Spyro franchise (1998–) 64t, 98t Square Enix 60t SSX 54t Star Trek (game, 1977) 17 Star Trek (TV, 1966–8) 17 Star Wars franchise (1977–) 63, 65, 120–1 StarCraft (1998) 64t, 66 Starfox 35t Steam network 103–4, 109 Stern, David 133 227 stock options, offered to employees 142, 150, 156, 165 strategy guides, publication of 130–1 Street Fighter franchise 116t Stringer, Howard 151 students, as gameplayers 49 research/marketing aimed at 163–4 see also education Super Mario franchise (1985–) 35t, 37, 115, 134 Super Mario 64 59t, 117t Super Mario Bros. (1985) 37, 117t, 118 Super Mario Bros. 2 117t Super Mario Bros. 3 117t Super Mario Galaxy 59t Super Mario Land 117t Super Mario World 117t Super Monkey Ball (2001) 39t, 96 Superman Returns (2006) 121 Surf ’s Up (2007) 125 Sweden, employment in game industry 142 tablets 94, 96 global sales 94t Taiwan, hardware manufacture oursourced to 82, 144 Take-Two Interactive 70, 101–2, 157 corporate profile 158t market share 53t, 60t Taxi Driver (1976) 125 Team Fortress 103t Tears for Fears 129 Tectoy 87 television impact of games on 127, 170 use of video games 127–8 Tencent 66 Tennis for Two (1958) 16, 17 The Terminator franchise (1984–2003) 126 territorial lockouts 9 Test Drive 20t Tetris (1989) 35t, 117t, 118 THQ 60t, 62t, 125 Tic-Tac-Toe, computer versions 15, 16 Tiger Electronics Game.com 27t Tiger Woods 54t Time Warner game development unit 118–19, 121–2 licensing revenue 117 Toles, Terri 6, 15 Tomb Raider franchise 116t Tony Hawk 64t Toontown (2001) 124 Toshiba 86 Toto 129 Touhoku Daigaku Mirai Kagaku DS Gijutsu Kyoudou Kenkyuu Center Kawashima Ryuuta Kyouju Kanshuu: Motto Nou wo Kitaeru Otona no DS Training 58t Toy and Hobby World (magazine) 34 toys, video games seen as 41, 46 see also children Toys for Bob 66 training games 3, 72, 137 investment in 141 Tramiel, Jack 22–4 Transformers 64t True Crime: Streets of LA (2003) 136 Twisted Metal 98t Ubisoft 95, 131 market share 53t, 60t, 62, 62t UEFA 54t Copyright material – 9781844573172 228 Ultima Online (1997) 6–7, 54t, 160–1 Underground (2003) 63 Underground 2 (2004) 137 unionisation lack of, in game/computer industries 141–3, 150, 155, 159–60, 173 moves towards 159–60, 173 United International Pictures 120 United Kingdom age of game players 49–50 employment in game industry 142, 168 gender of game players 51t handheld sales 92t, 93t United States age of game players 49, 49t Bureau of Labour Statistics 142 Defense Department 81 employment in game industry 2, 142 game retailers 106–7 handheld sales 92t, 93t hardware preferences 86–7 numbers of game players 48, 134 ratings system 73–6, 75t, 169 salaries 149t, 150, 154, 154t service sector employment 142 state legislation 73, 76 trade agreements 38 TV viewership 127 universities 162–3 video game production 46, 149 video game sales 31t, 36, 47, 57–8, 59t, 70–1tt, 144, 168 see also US Army University of Southern California 162 THE VIDEO GAME BUSINESS University of Washington 162 Unreal Tournament 20t US Air Force, purchase of consoles 112 US Army, recruitment/ training games 2, 3, 72, 73, 81, 137 uWink (restaurant chain) 105 Valve 103–4, 109 corporate profile 103t Vandross, Luther 129 Vectrex console 26t Viacom 121–2 video game industry company closures 143 dominant companies 47, 47t, 167 expansion of audience 78 future directions 173–4 global distribution 2–3, 9–10, 45t impact of new platforms 104 internationalisation 78, 82, 90, 153–4, 168–9, 172, 173–4 links with other industries 111–39, 141–4, 150, 154–5, 166, 170–1 logics of production 4–5, 5t, 43, 140, 166–7 market structure 22t, 44–8, 46t production schedules 147–8, 164, 167–8 profit margins 116 see also employment; film industry; sales video games bestselling 56, 117t competition with other media 15, 171 (see also films; television) cross-industry promotion 111–12 video games cont. development costs 61, 147–8, 150, 164 development process/ schedules 148–9, 148t, 164 earliest examples 16, 25–6 educational use 2 links with other media 10, 14–15, 78, 111–39 (see also film industry; films; Hollywood; music) myths/misunderstandings 12–13 outselling of film releases 118, 119t, 171 rise in popularity/cultural significance 1–2, 10, 41–2, 134 shelf life 120 strategy guides 130–1 studies 2, 3, 6–11, 12–13, 174 study programmes 162–4, 172 terminology 16–17 testing 143 see also audience(s); genres; history of video games; ratings; regulation; sales; video game industry Video Mods (2004) 128 violence, in-game 7, 77–8 regulation aimed at 76, 108–9, 169 Virtua Fighter 39t ‘virtual economies’ 6–7, 161 Vivendi 63–4 VRPhobia project 72 WalMart 106, 168 Warner Bros. 127 see also Time Warner; Warner Communications Warner Communications, purchase/sale of Atari 21, 22, 24, 118 Copyright material – 9781844573172 INDEx The Warriors (1979) 70, 125 Wickham, Robert F. 18 Wii 14t, 27t, 28, 35t, 90, 118 competition with rival models 83–4, 84t, 86t, 97–8 development costs 61, 66 global dominance 57–8, 58tt, 86, 87 microchip 113, 114 Wii Fit 35t Wii Play 35t, 58t, 59t, 117t Wii Sports 35t, 58t, 59t Wii Sports Resort 117t Williams, Dmitri 7 Wilson, Timothy L. 8 Windows operating system 88, 89t, 90 Wing Commander 54t women, as employees 152–3, 152t, 173 in China 146 game industry’s lack of appeal to 159, 163 229 women cont. health risks 147 salaries, compared to those of men 154t, 173 in service sector 143–4 women, as game players 50–2, 152 impact on licensing deals 117 national distribution 51t online 68 preferences 51–2 Wonder Wizard 1702 console 26t World Bank 161 World of Warcraft (2004) 56, 59t, 64t, 65, 66, 67, 81, 118, 161 Wright, Will 127 X-Men 64t, 122t XaviXPORT console 27t XBox 14t, 27t, 40, 87, 89t competition with rival models 83, 85t XBox cont. development costs 85, 144 marketing 135 XBox 360 14t, 27t, 28, 89t competition with rival models 83–4, 84t, 85t, 86t, 97–8 development costs 61, 66, 144 development strategy 85, 87, 88–90, 144 microchip 90, 113 technological advances 86, 89–90 Yahoo Games 69 Yoshi 35t Young, Larry 90 Zackariasson, Peter 8 Zeebo console 87, 109 Zircon Channel F System II console 26t Zynga 52, 68 Zynga Poker (2007) 68 Copyright material – 9781844573172